4.4 Discrimination, Segregation, and the Origins of the Civil Rights Movement

Understanding how African Americans faced discrimination and segregation in early 20th-century America is crucial for appreciating the struggle that led to the Civil Rights Movement. This movement was a collective effort to end centuries of injustice and ensure that African Americans could exercise the rights guaranteed by the Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, and 15th) and the Civil Rights Act of 1875. The following sections outline the key concepts, events, and figures that shaped this decisive era.

Introduction

The Civil Rights Movement emerged as a response to the unfair treatment of African Americans. In the early 1900s, many people of color encountered harsh segregation laws that touched virtually every part of daily life. In order to grasp the significance of the struggle, it is important to trace how segregation, discrimination, and pivotal legal cases set the stage for one of the most impactful social movements in American history.

Understanding Discrimination and Segregation

Definitions and Daily Impact

Discrimination occurs when people receive unfair treatment based on their race, ethnicity, or other characteristics. Segregation enforces the separation of different racial groups, often through local and state laws, or through unspoken social rules.

• Education: African American children were forced to attend separate schools with fewer resources. These schools were often housed in poor facilities with outdated materials.
• Housing: Black families were restricted to certain neighborhoods through discriminatory practices known as redlining, preventing them from living in better-resourced areas.
• Transportation: Public transportation systems assigned African Americans to separate sections, frequently with worse conditions.
• Voting: African Americans were kept from voting through literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation, undermining their political voice.

Therefore, many Black communities struggled to access opportunities and saw their dreams for a better life hindered at every turn. This persistent injustice helped spark the Civil Rights Movement.

The Historical Context: Early 20th Century Struggles

Although slavery had officially ended by the late 19th century, African Americans continued to experience racial discrimination, violence, and segregation. Both the North and the South practiced racist policies in jobs, schools, and public spaces, but Southern states often enforced segregation more openly through “Jim Crow” laws.

Key Events Leading Up to the Civil Rights Movement

• Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, 15th): These amendments ended slavery and promised citizenship and voting rights to African Americans.
• Civil Rights Act of 1875: This act outlawed racial discrimination in public places. However, its impact was limited, and many parts went unenforced.
• Early 20th Century Race Riots: Riots and racial violence in places like Tulsa (1921) exposed the depth of racial tensions.

Consequently, African Americans began forming advocacy groups to fight for equality and demand respect for their civil and human rights.

Landmark Case: Brown v. Board of Education

The Civil Rights Movement gained momentum with crucial legal victories. One of the most important was Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, decided by the Supreme Court in 1954. This verdict overturned “separate but equal,” which had been used to justify legal segregation since Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

Context of “Separate but Equal”

In Plessy v. Ferguson, the court ruled that having separate facilities for different races was constitutional, provided these facilities were equal. In reality, the “equal” part never happened. Schools for Black students often lacked resources, while white schools benefited from superior funding.

Importance of the Fourteenth Amendment

The Fourteenth Amendment guarantees all citizens equal protection under the law. The Supreme Court ruled that separate educational facilities violated this protection. Therefore, segregated schools were deemed unconstitutional.

Key Evidence: The “Doll Test”

Psychologists Mamie and Kenneth Clark performed the famous “doll test,” showing African American children four dolls identical except for skin and hair color. When asked which dolls they preferred or considered “good,” many chose light-skinned dolls. This finding demonstrated that segregation damaged children’s self-esteem.

Example: Step-by-Step Review of the Brown v. Board Decision

1. Background of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Courts declared racial segregation lawful, establishing the flawed concept of “separate but equal.”
2. Brown v. Board (1954) Case Specifics: Families challenged the segregation of public schools in Topeka, Kansas, arguing that separate schools harmed their children.
3. Supreme Court’s Ruling and Implications: The Court decided that “separate but equal” was unconstitutional in education, a historic step toward dismantling legalized segregation.

Because of the Brown v. Board ruling, states were directed to desegregate their schools. However, actual change did not happen overnight.

Reactions to School Integration

De Facto Segregation

Even though legal segregation faced setbacks in the courts, many schools remained separated in practice. De facto segregation persisted through social and economic forces as white families moved to neighborhoods that few Black families could access or afford. Some communities used various tactics to limit integration, such as closing schools instead of integrating them.

Responses From Different Groups

• White Families in Some Areas: Many relocated to suburban regions or enrolled their children in private schools to avoid integration.
• Local and State Governments: Some officials resisted integration by cutting funds to schools that accepted Black students.
• Law Enforcement and School Systems: In certain cases, the police or school authorities blocked African American students from entering formerly all-white schools.

Case Study: The Little Rock Nine

In 1957, nine African American teenagers enrolled in Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Their attempt to attend this previously all-white public school sparked intense opposition. State officials and mobs tried to prevent them from entering, prompting President Dwight D. Eisenhower to send federal troops to protect the students.

Example: Step-by-Step Look at the Little Rock Nine

1. Introduction to the Little Rock Nine: These brave teenagers were handpicked by civil rights leaders to test the Brown v. Board ruling.
2. Events Surrounding Their Attempt to Integrate: On the first day of school, hostile crowds and the National Guard blocked their entry.
3. Federal Government’s Involvement: President Eisenhower intervened, sending federal troops to ensure the students’ safety, reaffirming the federal government’s commitment to uphold civil rights.

This episode captured national attention and highlighted both the deep-rooted resistance to integration and the federal resolve to enforce the Supreme Court’s decision.

The Continuing Fight for Civil Rights

Over time, the power of civil rights organizations and activists grew. Figures like Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and many others helped lead boycotts, marches, and protests targeting discriminatory laws. However, school integration was just one part of a larger campaign to end discrimination in employment, housing, and voting rights.

It is clear that the struggle did not end with Brown v. Board of Education. Even after landmark legislation, ongoing racial inequities persisted. Therefore, the Civil Rights Movement extended into the 1960s and beyond, pushing for federal laws, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, to safeguard African Americans’ rights fully.

Required Source Materials

1. Clark Doll Test, Harlem by Gordon Parks, 1947
   • This iconic photograph by Gordon Parks captures the emotional weight of the Clark doll experiments, in which Black children were asked to choose between Black and white dolls. The image powerfully illustrates the psychological effects of segregation and internalized racism, reinforcing the connection between visual culture and social science in the fight for racial justice.
2. Kenneth Clark and Child During the Clark Doll Test, Harlem by Gordon Parks, 1947
   • This photo documents psychologist Kenneth Clark conducting the doll test with a young Black child, providing visual evidence of how systemic racism shaped children’s perceptions of worth and identity. Parks’ composition emphasizes the human cost of segregation and supports the broader civil rights narrative about the harm caused by institutionalized discrimination.
3. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Opinion, May 17, 1954
   • This landmark Supreme Court decision declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson and rejecting the doctrine of “separate but equal.” The ruling cited the Clark doll test as evidence of the psychological damage segregation inflicted on Black children, making it a pivotal moment in the legal and moral case against Jim Crow laws.

Conclusion

Discrimination in education, housing, transportation, and voting shaped African American life in the first half of the 20th century. The historic Brown v. Board of Education ruling challenged these injustices and opened a new door toward integration. However, de facto segregation persisted, and many white communities resisted change. The Little Rock Nine illustrated both the difficulties of integration and the government’s willingness to intervene when necessary.

The lessons from this era remain vital today, reminding everyone that the path to equality often demands persistence, courage, and legal action. By learning about the early efforts to combat segregation, students can better understand current struggles for social justice and see how each generation plays a part in shaping a more equitable society.

Quick Reference Chart: Key Vocabulary and Definitions

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